Frequently used methods
The first question concerns the most frequently used teaching methods. Our results show that teachers generally use demonstration (52 %) and work-based learning (46 %), but group-based methods (39 %), the cooperative method (37 %), PBL (36 %) and games (33 %) are also used. On the other hand, student presentations (11 %), discussions (9 %) and lectures (5 %) are rarely employed.
Next, we examined the relationship between the level of the school where teachers work and their preferred methods. We analysed teachers’ answers according to three groups: (1) lower primary school teachers, (2) upper primary school teachers and (3) secondary school teachers (Fig. 1).
In general, PBL is among the favoured methods in all three groups, yet it is not the most frequent at any level. Lower primary school teachers prefer games (56 %), work-based learning (53 %) and demonstration (50 %), followed by PBL (38 %). Upper primary school teachers use demonstration (52 %) most commonly and then work-based learning (48 %) and cooperative learning (40 %). These methods are followed by PBL, which, similarly to lower primary school, is used by 38 % of teachers. The distribution is different in secondary school, where 14 % of teachers use frontal work, which is the dominant method. Other methods include demonstration (54 %) and conversation (43 %). In addition, lecture and discussion are not used in lower primary school and are rare in upper primary school (lecture 2 % and discussion 10 %). Similarly, in secondary school, lectures (11 %) and pair work (9 %) are rarely used. In line with our results, Le Fevre (2014) maintains that teachers tend to avoid risks associated with changing their teaching practices. They prefer teacher-centred education because they strive to maintain control. Taking on the role of facilitator requires great effort because they often assume that this role entails losing control over classroom activity. Adherence to the traditional textbooks is one example of risk avoidance, and the associated fear of losing control is especially dominant concerning the use of ICT tools, where students might possess a wider array of skills and knowledge and even outperform teachers.
Subsequently, we analysed data according to teaching experience to map potential differences between beginner, experienced and expert teachers with regard to their use of methods. Teachers were grouped into three categories: (1) beginner teachers with less than 10 years of experience; (2) experienced teachers with 11–20 years of experience; and (3) expert teachers with over 20 years of experience. Results show that on the whole, the most frequently used methods are demonstration (Freq.1–10 years = 56 %, Freq.11–20 years = 53 %, Freq.>20 years = 50 %) and work-based learning (Freq.1–10 years = 44 %, Freq.11–20 years = 40 %, Freq.>20 years = 50 %). Our teachers emphasized the importance of work-based learning. Similarly, Alake-Tuenter et al. (2013) have confirmed that inquiry-based teaching and work-based teaching represent significant teaching competences. The third most frequently used method among beginner teachers and expert teachers is group work (Freq.1–10 years = 35 %, Freq.>20 years = 45 %); it is conversation (50 %) for experienced teachers. It is not surprising that the least experienced teachers report using drama pedagogy (6 %) the least frequently, since this method requires substantial experience and most probably can only be implemented during a separate course. On the other hand, the expert teachers used this method more extensively (Freq.>20 years = 25 %). A further distinction is that expert teachers to not use lecture at all, whereas 12 % of beginners do. It is likely that they do not have an extensive methodological repertoire and prefer relying on this teacher-centred method, since it equips them with more control over the class. However, lecture as a frontal method often only provides an illusion of joint progress as individual thoughts and opinions are not revealed.
Despite the fact that a number of researchers have confirmed the effectiveness of the use of ICT tools in PBL (Doppelt 2003; Chu et al. 2011; Balasubramanian et al. 2014), our results show that secondary school teachers mostly use frontal instruction and do not make use of the availability of ICT tools. We believe that this is problematic because students in this age group are highly involved in the uses of ICT tools in everyday contexts and thus are likely to be susceptible to such media in educational settings as well. As a result, we believe that teachers should capitalize on ICT tools in the classroom to a greater extent.
Teacher’s role in PBL
The second research question focused on the teacher’s role in the project method. Our initial assumption was that teachers were aware of the fact that their role had shifted to that of a facilitator, instead of a more traditional role. In line with these assumptions, results show that most teachers assign importance to motivation (63 %), transmission of values (40 %) and forming personality (34 %). Throughout traditional instruction motivating learners (57 %) is considered most important, along with teaching (51 %) and transmission of values (43 %). It is worth noting that teaching, social and affective education and maintaining discipline are linked more closely to traditional instruction and not to PBL. The acquisition of skills also takes place in PBL, yet teachers might find it more difficult to monitor it as compared to traditional teaching situations.
Teacher and school-related factors also reveal a certain variation in teacher perceptions. The comparison of teachers based on school types reveals that motivation is important in PBL, according to more than half of the teachers. In addition, transmission of values and forming personality are also considered important. As revealed by examining results according to teaching experience, over 60 % of teachers highlight the importance of motivation and transmission of values as teacher roles. Expert teachers deem forming personality (45 %) more important than other teachers. Maintaining discipline is not considered important at all by this group; that is, they do not position themselves in a controlling role. The underlying reason might be that they are well aware of the flexible and collaborative nature of project work, which is incompatible with the requirements of frontal work, such as sitting quietly and listening to the teacher (Fig. 2).
Surprisingly, teachers do not necessarily see themselves in the role of the instructor, educator or assessor in PBL. Although only a low number of teachers see themselves as evaluators, it must be noted that this role is very important throughout teaching, as teachers need to be able to assess the effectiveness of their own methods besides the evaluation of students. Moreover, according to teacher perceptions, the teacher’s role in maintaining discipline is less significant. In contrast, motivating students is considered an essential teacher role. The effect of PBL on motivation has been demonstrated by previous research (Doppelt 2003; Filippatou and Kaldi 2010; Hung et al. 2012).
The use of PBL met with a favourable response, and learners were able to engage in academic communicative activities in the collaborative processes of project work, which increased their motivation from the beginning of the project (Campbell 2012). Similarly, Wu and Meng (2010) witnessed the advantage of PBL in the fostering of cognitive and metacognitive strategies and the enhancement of motivation. These factors promoted the development of English language proficiency and cultural sensitivity. Cognitive skills were also developed with young learners with PBL. Habók (2015) reports the successful implementation of a concept map-based PBL developmental programme among pre-school children. The outcome of the programme was increased experimental reasoning and comprehension as compared to the control group. The positive effect of PBL on learning was also measured in later ages. For example, Bagnasco et al. (2010) analysed the effect of PBL on the academic performance of nursing students and found that problem-based learning embedded in PBL promoted learning.
Furthermore, teachers’ self-perception and conceptualization of teacher roles have a fundamental impact on the teaching process. Beneke and Ostrosky (2008) analysed PBL from the teachers’ perspective and its beneficial effect on learners. They found that different types of learning could be developed. One advantage of PBL is that it can cater to the needs of differently-abled learners and all of them can find achievable tasks which still pose a challenge for them. In addition, several researchers have emphasized the role of teachers as facilitators and guides (Holm 2011; Bell 2010).
Teacher roles in traditional instruction
In the second part of our second research question, we set out to examine teacher perceptions regarding teacher roles during traditional classroom management. Within the bounds of traditional instruction, teaching (Freq.1–10 years = 68 %, Freq.11–20 years = 50 %, Freq.>20 years = 41 %) took centre stage, especially for less experienced teachers. One possible explanation is that they are more focused on curriculum requirements and standardized tests, which do not measure students’ ability to cooperate. Furthermore, motivation was viewed as an important task for teachers (Freq.1–10 years = 59 %, Freq.11–20 years = 57 %, Freq.>20years = 57 %), besides transmission of values (Freq.1–10 years = 41 %, Freq.11–20 years = 53 %, Freq.>20 years = 39 %). According to teacher perceptions, less important teacher roles included control, evaluation and shaping community (Fig. 3), which is a difficult feat to accomplish in a less stable context, where groups frequently change and mostly frontal work is employed. In addition, evaluation is included in the curriculum and as such is carried out by teachers nevertheless.
Characteristics of successful projects in PBL
Our third research question dealt with the characteristics of successful projects. Teachers claimed that student activity (62 %) and good atmosphere (59 %) are the key characteristics of a successful project. Similarly, these two features were mentioned for traditional teaching situations, where student activity (51 %), good atmosphere (43 %), enthusiastic learners (43 %) and varied methodology (36 %) were considered essential for success. Although the use of modern ICT tools is inseparable from education, the use of such tools (5 %) was not considered important in PBL, and even in traditional instruction only 17 % of teachers noted it as a key component. Evaluation was also relegated to the background in PBL. In fact, evaluation did not take the form of marks gained for their performance in distinct sections of the project; instead, peer and teacher evaluation is available throughout the implementation of the project.
In traditional classroom situations, we find a lower degree of consideration of honesty and emotion (6 %) than in PBL, where 18 % of teachers note it. In today’s digital culture, increased attention should be paid to addressing questions related to the interpretation and consideration of other people’s feelings, along with the expression of students’ own feelings. Zembylas et al. (2014) looked into the relationship between emotion and memory in the classroom using the concept of emotional styles. They examined the regulative effect of emotional style on what was considered relevant and what was retained and reiterated in the classroom with regard to a controversial historical event in Cyprus. They emphasize the need for pedagogical strategies to help teachers to manage emotions and memories in the classroom (Zembylas et al. 2014, p. 78). According to our results, upper primary school teachers found it important to address the issue of emotion in the classroom (Fig. 4).
Furthermore, we examine the opinions of teachers operating at different levels of the educational system. At each level, learner activity is considered essential (Freq.lower prim. = 88 %, Freq.upper prim. = 67 %, Freq.second. = 61 %). One surprising result is that varied methodology is deemed important by 56 % of lower primary school teachers, 33 % of upper primary school and merely 6 % of secondary school teachers, even though a differentiated use of methods is strongly justified by diverse learner needs. As far as good atmosphere is concerned, it is viewed as important mostly by upper primary school teachers (64 %), followed by secondary school teachers (49 %), while lower primary school teachers (31 %) consider it less important. On the whole, opinions among upper primary and secondary school teachers were more diverse, while lower primary school teachers mostly agreed on the importance of student activity, varied methodology and good atmosphere.
On the other hand, teaching experience accounts for a wider variation. Beginner and expert teachers believe that good atmosphere (Freq.1–10 years = 65 %, Freq.>20 years = 61 %), and motivating learner activity (Freq.1–10 years = 35, Freq.>20 years = 50 %) are most important; however, experienced teachers also point to learner activity as a key factor (Freq.11–20 years = 70 %, Freq.>20 years = 61 %).
In conclusion, we maintain that projects require a considerable amount of preparation and planning, but the benefits are indisputable. The question of planning and preparation was also examined by Gillies and Boyle (2010), who presented teachers’ experience with cooperative learning. Their analysis showed that teachers gained valuable experience using PBL, but they also encountered a number of difficulties. Both cooperative learning and PBL require a great deal of preparation and planning, with an increased focus on time management. Moreover, assessment posed an additional challenge, as they could not use traditional assessment methods. It was highlighted that cooperative teaching entails thorough planning, planning challenging tasks and laying the groundwork for the monitoring of group activities.
Characteristics of success in traditional instruction
Teachers in general agree on the fact that traditional classroom instruction is characterized by a high degree of learner activity; 43 % of expert teachers agreed. Besides learner activity, varied methodology (43 %) is noted by experienced teachers. The importance of games emerged, since students enjoy games, which can spark interest in learners, especially lower primary school students, who frequently engage in autonomous games. Despite this, only 6 % of beginner teachers and 10 % of more experienced teachers state that games are central elements of successful traditional lessons. Likewise, only 11 % of the most experienced teachers consider games important. Moreover, it is even less preferred in PBL.
Moreover, it should also be noted that the role of emotions was neglected by teachers in general. A mere 3 % of beginner teachers and 9 % of expert teachers consider it important, while none of the experienced teachers do. These opinions are particularly perplexing because students study several subjects involving emotional aspects, including literature, art and music. In fact, it is indeed difficult for teachers to be attentive and open to their students’ emotions during frontal work. This problem could be resolved with the use of pair or group work, which makes it possible for learners to communicate and discuss their feelings. However, only 15 % of beginner teachers, 13 % of experienced teachers and 16 % of expert teachers consider pair and group work an effective tool for a successful lesson (Fig. 5). This is in line with research highlighting that group work may often be employed without thorough planning regarding group composition, the quality of the activity, and problem-solving and conflict resolution. Empirical results have demonstrated that teachers may face difficulties during cooperative learning due to its complexity, and, as a result, increased emphasis on professional development is required in this area (Gillies and Boyle 2010, p. 938).
One positive outcome of our research is that it reveals that teachers deem student activity important. This is a favourable attitude, since students will need to be able to engage in active learning and manage their own learning in their future learning processes. Finsterwald et al. (2013) summarized learning-to-learn competences, which include: teacher knowledge regarding the enhancement of students’ LLL competences, such as motivation, self-regulated learning and social and cognitive competences; teacher beliefs in fostering LLL; and teacher motivation, including teachers’ occupational motivation and personal and collective self-efficacy (Finsterwald et al. 2013, p. 148). On the whole, these competences are fundamental, not only in PBL but also in traditional instruction.
Student evaluation
Our final research question focused on students’ participation in the evaluation process during or at the end of the project. Surprisingly, some teachers do not involve students in evaluation at all. Unfortunately, this approach is merely favoured by 6 % of teachers in PBL and 18 % in traditional classroom instruction. In PBL, oral evaluation in groups is the most frequent method, as 61 % of teachers use it, followed by oral self-evaluation (45 %). These two types of evaluation are the most popular in the traditional setting as well, where oral self-evaluation (56 %) is the most common, along with group evaluation (32 %). Moreover, these types of evaluation are most frequently used in upper primary school (Fig. 6).
After examining the responses according to the type of institution, we note that oral evaluation in groups is used by the majority of lower primary school teachers (63 %) and it is the most popular approach in upper primary (69 %) and secondary school (51 %) as well. Oral self-evaluation is frequently used in lower (50 %) and upper primary school (57 %), but rarely in secondary school (26 %). A clear distinction can be seen in the case of oral pair evaluation, written pair evaluation and written peer evaluation, which are seldom used on any educational level (Fig. 6).
We find a similar distribution when we examine teacher responses according to teaching experience (Fig. 7). It is the most experienced teachers that involve students in the evaluation process to the greatest degree. However, one possible disadvantage of peer evaluation may be that it is highly time-consuming and teachers are likely to find it impossible to allocate time to lengthy evaluation sessions, especially when they are constrained by a demanding curriculum. Unfortunately, this disadvantage appears to outweigh the interpersonal benefits of enabling learners to form a tighter bond with their classmates. Lee and Lim (2012) list such benefits of peer evaluation, which, in their view, facilitates interaction between learners and generates more heterogeneous student evaluations. However, student feedback mostly addresses social skills, management and coordinating managerial abilities, and not cognitive performance. Nonetheless, involving students in the evaluation process is advantageous because it involves active participation, not merely the passive reception of information.
According to our results, evaluation is frequently used in the traditional setting as well, albeit not at all educational levels. For example, 37 % of secondary school teachers do not involve their students in the evaluation process. In this case as well, oral self-evaluation is predominant. On the other hand, written peer evaluation and pair evaluation are seldom employed or not at all, despite the acclaim with which they have met in previous research. Harris and Brown (2013) have carried out research on peer and self-assessment, focusing on improvement, accountability, social interaction and accuracy. They have concluded that students necessitate guidance during the implementation of peer and self-assessment, for example, in the form of clear instructions. However, they conducted case studies with merely three teachers and thus their results cannot be generalized. Yet they still provide in-depth insights into the application of peer and self-assessment. Nevertheless, it has to be noted that their views are based on the assumption that evaluation is not as central to student progress as it is considered in certain countries, for example, in the UK, the US and China.
Furthermore, Harris and Brown (2013) have identified positive student attitudes towards teacher-controlled assessment. Peer assessment was difficult to implement, since the task of assessment was almost exclusively attributed to teachers. It was suggested that besides training on assessment techniques, supportive psychological concepts such as self-regulation also need to be presented to students to enhance effectiveness. In addition, these efforts need to be backed by policies, which at this point mostly support examinations and teacher-centred evaluation (Harris and Brown 2013, p. 110).
A further advantage of teacher-controlled assessment stems from its greater objectivity as compared to student assessments, which are characterized by increased subjectivity. Van den Bergh et al. (2006) note that students may not like peer assessment due to its subjective nature, which students may exploit to evaluate each other more positively or negatively than their actual achievement based on social rather than academic factors. As a result, students prefer combining such assessment with methods that allow for more objectivity. A further result was that students found self-assessment problematic due to the subjectivity and incomparability of grades. Its benefits mostly reside in mapping group dynamics and self-reflectivity (Van den Bergh et al. 2006, p. 358). Furthermore, students who participated in the research project listed several benefits, including being able to participate in actual fieldwork and apply different types of knowledge in a practical manner over an extensive period of time. Instructors reported increased student motivation, and both mentioned the advantages of undertaking collaborative and individual work as well. Finally, PBL also provides opportunities for student–teacher collaboration (Van den Bergh et al. 2006, pp. 353–354).