Table 6 A synthesis of the published studies (2012–2014) focusing on the SIE experience

1.

Alshammari (2012)

Evaluate the role of two predictors (marital status and previous international experience) on cross-cultural adjustment

237 self-initiated expatriates from public universities in Saudi Arabia filled in an online questionnaire

No significant relation was found between marital status/previous international experience and the three dimensions of cross-cultural adjustment (general, interaction and work adjustment)

2.

Altman and Baruch (2012)

Explore the factor chance as a motivational driver to undertake expatriation

31 expatriates and repatriates (employees of a major financial institution) were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide, constructed along the principal stages of the expatriation cycle

A two dimensional (work attractor/motivational driver vs. psychological contract) model is proposed to characterize the main expatriation paths. Corporate self-initiated expatriates identified for the first time

3.

Beitin (2012)

Explore Syrian SIEs’ experiences and relations with home and host countries

13 Syrian SIE were recruited at the Syrian Expatriate Conference and interviewed about the motives for leaving Syria, their understanding of identity, the relationship with the host country, the factors which helped the transition to the new culture and the relations with the home country

The motives for leaving Syria were related to advance in education and careers. Many men referred the mandate of military service as a factor in leaving. The adjustment issues faced were language barriers and the difficulty of remaining connected to Syria. Relationships with both countries were fluid

Extend this study to the different groups of Syrians and identify the respective differences and similarities

4.

Bergh and Plessis (2012)

Develop and explore a theoretical framework of pre-migration and post-migration career development and success

21 SIE women in the Netherlands, accessed via LinkedIn and snowball sampling, participated in two interactive focus groups

Individual drivers influencing pre-migration and post-migration career development: identity, social support and life phase

Factors magnified by SIE women: Identity embeddedness, host country culture, openness to foreigners and existing prejudices and stereotypes against women

Empirical test of the proposed framework

5.

Cao et al. (2012)

1. Provide conceptual clarity by distinguishing SIEs from AEs and skilled migrants

2. Propose a theoretical framework for SIEs’ career success, based on career capital theory

Review of literature in different areas: SIE, expatriation, career studies, migration

SIEs are distinguished from AEs, based on some main results of previous studies (#1, 3, 13, 40): SIEs relocate on their own initiative without any financial support from their employers. They don’t have a definite plan for repatriation; hence their career development is indeterminate

Ambiguity exists between migrants and SIEs, differences depending on intrinsic and intangible criteria

SIEs’ career success positively influenced by: protean career attitude, career networks, and cultural intelligence. Cultural adjustment mediates these relations, while cultural adjustment acts as a moderator

Expand research besides the influence of macro-contextual factors on SIEs’ career success. Meso-factors (e.g. family, social relationships) could have been taken into consideration

6.

Crowley-Henry (2012)

Explore the existing career metaphors and propose a new one, discuss its implications on future career research and practice

37 SIEs from the Science and Technology Park in South of France were interviewed

The metaphor “river” is considered to more aptly capture the career development of SIEs, by taking into consideration the micro, meso and macro context

Conduct a broader study incorporating the metaphors of this study, along with the nine defined by Inkson (2004, 2007)

7.

Ellis (2012)

Explore and compare the performance management (PM) preferences of SIE New Zealanders in Belgium and host country nationals

10 SIE New Zealanders were recruited through a notice on a website (New Zealanders in Belgium) and 10 Belgians were interviewed

Through content analysis, the following preferences for structured PM of SIEs were found: goal-setting, performance measurement and appraisal, and a performance-based pay component. The Belgians’ preferences for PM incorporate professional and distant relationships. Similarities and differences were found between the two groups, with the differences prevailing

Test the results quantitatively on a larger scale and explore SIEs’ PM preferences before becoming SIEs and after a time in the host country

8.

Froese (2012)

Explore the motivations and cross-cultural adjustment of SIEs in South Korea

30 SIE academics in South Korea were interviewed

Motivational drivers for expatriation: desire for international experience, attractive job conditions, family ties, and poor labor markets in home countries

A theoretical framework is proposed between motivational factors and cross-cultural adjustment

9.

Lo et al. (2012)

Investigate the relationship between job embeddedness (3 factors: HomeCCE, HostCOE, HostCCE) with shocks (unsolicited job offer) and turnover intentions of SIEs in Macau

HomeCCE: embeddedness towards the organization in which they are employed in the host country

HostCOE: embeddedness towards the organization in which they are employed in the host country

HostCCE: embeddedness towards the host country community

127 local staff and 210 SIEs from Macau hotel industry filled out a questionnaire

Factors which may affect the retention of SIE

HostCOE mediates the relationship between HomeCCE and turnover intention and willingness to accept unsolicited job offers

The following variables moderate this relationship: expatriate-dominated private sector and HostCCE

Longitudinal perspective from job turnover to actual quitting, taking into consideration more workplace shocks

10.

Selmer and Lauring (2012)

Test the motivational drivers found by Richardson and McKenna (2006) and Osland (1995) and their impact on work outcomes (work performance, work effectiveness and job satisfaction)

428 SIE academics from 60 countries employed in 35 universities in 5 northern European countries completed an online questionnaire

Development of a scale for the evaluation of 4 sets of reasons to expatriate: refugee, mercenary, explorer and architect

Incorporate supervisors’ reports while evaluating work outcome variables (e.g. such as work performance and work effectiveness). Longitudinal approach may be used to capture possible changes in the perception of initial behavioral intentions over time. Target SIEs in business firms to test the validity of the findings of this investigation

11.

Shaffer et al. (2012)

Review, summarize and synthetize the empirical research related to the career’s choices, challenges and consequences of different types of global work. Develop a taxonomy of global work experiences and propose an agenda for future research

Literature review of 114 papers

Distinguishes between SIE and AE, based on different criteria

Taxonomy of global work experiences (E, SIE, short-term assignees, international business travelers, global domestics, global virtual team members, flexpatriates) based on non-work disruption, cognitive flexibility and physical mobility

Leaves some research questions for future research

12.

Whitman and Isakovic (2012)

Compare the personality traits and stress management/coping strategies between SIEs & AEs

Based on the existing literature, two conceptual models were developed

The empirical test of the proposed framework, will add important knowledge to the existing literature

13.

Yijälä et al. (2012)

Develop and empirically test a model of factors predicting pre-migration adaptation of SIEs

95 SIEs recruited by the European Chemicals Agency in Finland who filled out a questionnaire in the country of departure, while preparing their relocation

European identification, self-esteem and relocation stress act as mediators, while the factors which positively predict for pre-migration adaptation are: previous international work experience, perceived organizational prestige, satisfaction with the time, information and assistance to prepare for the relocation and quality contact with host country nationals during recruitment

Conduct more complex analyses of the pre-migration stage of the relocation process (e.g. longitudinal studies focusing on pre and post-relocation)

14.

Al Ariss and Crowley-Henry (2013)

Critically review how SIEs are different from migrants in the management literature

Answer two questions:

(1) How are SIEs portrayed compared to migrants?

(2) What do we know about SIEs compared to migrants?

Review of 110 peer reviewed articles retrieved from ISI Web of Knowledge database and ABI/Inform. Keywords: “self-initiated expatriation”, “self-directed travel”, “self-initiated foreign experience” and “migration”

Presents how SIEs and migrants are portrayed in the management literature based on: country of origin, gender, education, job position, organizations, period of international mobility, destination countries and description of context

Sets out a research framework based on four dimensions: diversity-informed, context specific, reflexive and triangulated methods

15.

Arp (2013)

Explore foreign executives in local organizations (FELOs) and distinguish them from other types of expatriation (AE and SIE)

46 FELOs from 13 different countries and their host-country peers from organizations founded and headquartered in Malaysia were interviewed

FELOs are different from AEs and can be understood as a rare and specific form of SIEs

The content analysis of the interviews identified issues surrounding allegiance, trust, and control, assumptions about income levels, and exposure to heightened local scrutiny as components of the distinct nature of the FELOs’ experience

Explore FELOs in other contexts, since this one was Western to Eastern. Case studies and longitudinal approaches can be used in future studies

16.

Cao et al. (2013)

Empirically test a model of mediation via cross-cultural adjustment between the positive protean career attitude and SIEs’ experience (career satisfaction, intentions to stay and life satisfaction)

132 SIEs in Germany recruited via international platforms (Internations), discussion forums (Toytown Germany) and snowball principles. Path analysis with bootstrap method was used to test the model

Positive cross-cultural adjustment mediates the positive relations between protean career attitude and SIEs’ experienced outcomes (career satisfaction, intentions to stay in the host country and life satisfaction)

Longitudinal research and replication of the study in other destination countries with bigger sample size

17.

Dabic et al. (2013)

Provide a comprehensive literature review on the expatriates and their impact on global business performance

A literature review was conducted and 436 papers were retrieved and analyzed

After 4 decades of research, the existing literature needs further exploration and higher order content

Explore new contexts and organizations; make an effort into systematic approaches

18.

Doherty (2013)

Review and synthesize literature review on the topic of SIE

A thematic analysis was performed on the 49 reviewed published works between 1996 and 2011 on SIE

Constructs of SIE can be analyzed at three different levels of analysis: micro, meso and macro

Clarification of the SIE concept

Consider the subjective career experiences; relate individual, micro and meso level variables (e.g. explore how micro level variables can relate to organizational ones, demonstrate whether and how individual career capital can contribute to organizational-level competitive advantage)

19.

Doherty et al. (2013)

Clarify the self-initiated expatriation/expatriate construct

Suddaby’s (2010) elements of construct clarity (definitional clarity, scope conditions, relationships between constructs and coherence) were applied in the clarification process of SIE

A distinction is made between the different types of global work experiences (short-term/flexpatriate, expatriate, organizational SIE, SIE, AE, international students and migration) based on the criteria: initiation, goals, funding, focus, career impetus, intended duration, employment and occupational category)

20.

Froese and Peltokorpi (2013)

Explore how AEs and SIEs differ in terms of individual factors, job-related factors and expatriate outcomes. Determine which individual or related factors can explain the difference in expatriate outcomes between AEs and SIEs

124 SIEs and 57 AEs from 25 different countries and living in the Tokyo area were recruited through numerous intermediaries (e.g. chambers of commerce, alumni associations). They filled out a questionnaire

Individual factors: significant differences in Japanese language proficiency and overseas experience with SIE presenting higher levels; no significant differences in age, gender, marital status or education;

Job related factors: SIEs worked more under Japanese supervisors (acts as a mediator on their job satisfaction) and domestic companies, whereas AEs worked for foreign companies and reported higher levels of job satisfaction than SIEs

Cross-cultural adjustment: SIEs were more adjusted to interacting with host country nationals, because of their longer stay in the host country and higher host-country language proficiency (mediators)

Test the relations in non- Asian contexts. Explore further the role of family since this study only took into consideration marital status. Host country nationals’ perspective could also be explored along with the SIEs’ work performance

21.

Guo et al. (2013)

Examine the career experiences of repatriated SIEs

20 repatriated Chinese SIEs were interviewed about their motivations to repatriate and the international experience

Career agency is impacted by both individual (e.g. personal control, proactivity, self-determination) and contextual factors, which provide support for Tams and Arthur’s (2010) six dimensions of career agency

22.

Isakovic and Whitman (2013)

Explore the adjustment of SIEs, using Black et al.s’ (1991) model as the theoretical foundation. Test the influence of previous overseas work experience, foreign language ability and culture novelty on adjustment

An online survey was filled in by 297 academic SIEs working in ten higher education institutions in United Arab Emirates

Previous overseas experience has a positive relationship with SIEs’ adjustment, while culture novelty has a negative one. Contrary to what was predicted, foreign language ability was not positively related to adjustment

Examine the other factors included in Black et al. (1991) in order to determine if they apply to SIEs and how they differ from AEs

23.

Lauring and Selmer (2013)

Compare public and private sector SIEs, regarding work outcomes (degree of performance, effectiveness and job satisfaction) and the effect of creativity on work performance

329 SIEs residing in Denmark (119 private sector and 210 public sector) filled in an online questionnaire. They were recruited through an association for international residents in Denmark

On average, SIEs in the public sector present a higher degree of performance and effectiveness than SIEs in the private sector. Contrary to what was predicted, this doesn’t happen with job satisfaction. For SIEs in the private sector vs. public sector, there is a stronger positive association between creativity and performance, creativity and effectiveness, but not between creativity and job satisfaction

Use more homogenous samples of SIEs. Rely on information from supervisors and colleagues. Distinguish between incremental and radical creativity since literature indicated that incremental creativity is more present in the public sector while radical creativity is more often found in the private sector

24.

Scurry et al. (2013)

Examine how SIEs position themselves in terms of identity

20 SIEs working in a Qatari public shareholding company were interviewed about their motives behind becoming an SIE, work and life experiences in Qatar and the organization, career paths, and relationships with others

The narratives of self were framed within structural constrains and patterns of adaptation. As part of these themes two narratives were identified: narrative of mobility (ambiguity in relation to temporal and spatial parameters of adaptation) and opportunity (motives behind becoming a SIE centered on opportunity)

More empirical work to map the experiences of SIEs. Explore experiences of female SIEs in a male dominated working environment

25.

Showail et al. (2013)

Empirically test the relation between role ambiguity, organization identification (mediator) and job performance, being moderated by information seeking about the organization and perceived organizational support

A multi-informant perspective was used in the completion of the questionnaire. 138 supervisors and 154 SIEs were recruited from six Saudi Arabian companies employing foreign employees

The relationship between role ambiguity and job performance was significant. This relationship was mediated by organizational identification and moderated by information seeking and perceived organizational support

Explore the workers’ motivations for engaging in the identified behaviors

26.

Tharenou (2013)

Examine scholars’ proposal that SIEs are an alternative to AEs for filling key positions at lower cost

21 empirical studies were analyzed, comparing SIEs, OEs and MNC locals in terms of interaction with the local community; employing organization and work interactions; managerial roles and skills; attachment to employer; and attachment to living and working abroad

Situations where SIEs can replace AEs: roles requiring cross- cultural and host location-specific competencies and generic competencies. Along with MNC locals, SIEs can replace AEs in managing local, host-country culture within a subsidiary and dealing with local environment. At a lower cost SIEs can replace AEs for filling specialist professional and lower, middle management roles. They cannot replace AEs for roles requiring firm-specific competencies

Determine to what extent the competences developed are similar among SIEs, AEs and local employees who work a comparable, lengthy time in MNCs. Explore if the amount of international experience can moderate the relation between competences and the suitability of SIEs replacing AEs

27.

Thorn et al. (2013)

Explore the relation between motives and mobility patterns

2608 SIE New Zealanders were recruited through university alumni organizations, professional associations and snowball technique. They were asked to fill out an online questionnaire

The identified motives were cultural and travel opportunities, career, economics, affiliations, political environment, and quality of life. The mobility patterns were evaluated in terms of frequency, duration and cessation of mobility and the nature of the destination in terms of development level and cultural distance. CHAID analysis was used to test for the motivation predictors of mobility patterns. Desire for cultural and travel opportunities was the best predictor of cessation of mobility and development level in the host country. Career motives predicted duration of mobility and cultural difference of the destination

Determine if return propensity (an imminent return to the home country) or other current mobility intentions can be predicted by motives for previous mobility. Explore the development of mobility motivations overtime (longitudinal study)

28.

Andresen et al. (2014)

Clarify the distinctions and develop a framework of different types of self-initiated and assigned expatriates

Literature review of 136 articles from sociology, psychology and economics. Content analysis and the Rubicon model are used to analyze data

AEs, SIEs and migrants are distinguished on individual and organizational levels based on different criteria; a decision tree is proposed in order to distinguish between AEs, inter- self-initiated expatriates, intra-self-initiated expatriates and drawn expatriates:

(1) Move from one geographical point to another via crossing national borders (yes/no)

(2) Change of dominant place of residence which is the center of a person’s life (yes/no)

(3) Execution of work in the form of dependent or independent employment (yes/no)

(4) Legality of employment (legal vs illegal)

(5) Initiator of key binding activity in job search (organization vs individual)

(6) Work contract partner (current vs new)

Empirical proof of the proposed decision tree and add more demarcation criterions (e.g. based on motive)

29.

Bjerregaard (2014)

Examine the interaction between institutional contexts and agency in self-initiated global careers

38 SIEs and 11 spouses were interviewed. Observational notes were taken and documents were analyzed

Since institutional interventions can form SIEs’ careers and work experiences, the results of this study show how public institutions shape international experiences within and outside the workplace. More precisely, the public institutions ease, drive and support the global career mobility and agency of SIEs

Find how institutions of host countries at different levels are engaged in international professionals’ encounters with them, from the programs and policies of central ministries to the frontlines of service delivering and people processing organizations (cf Hasenfeld 1972)

30.

Cao et al. (2014)

Explore SIEs in organizational context, specifically through a moderation and mediation model: the effect of perceived organizational support (POS) on SIEs’ intention to stay in the host country, is moderated by career networks of host and home country nationals and mediated by career satisfaction

112 SIE employees in Germany were recruited through numerous intermediaries (e.g. Internations, Xing, ToytownGermany) and filled out an online questionnaire

A direct positive effect between POS and intention to stay was found. However, there was a significant negative indirect effect between POS and intention to stay when the career network of home country nationals was large. POS has a positive effect on SIEs’ career satisfaction and intention to stay in the host country

Explore the impact of family support and supportive immigration/re-emigration policies. Determine what contributes to SIEs’ POS and explore other outcome variables (e.g. turnover intentions)

31.

Cerdin and Le Pargneux (2014)

Explore how individual career characteristics (protean career attitude, boundaryless career attitude, careerist attitude and career fit) influence the success of international mobility (job satisfaction, career satisfaction, intention to leave)

303 French SIEs and AEs working in 57 countries were recruited through companies, professional associations and snowball sampling. They were asked to fill in an online questionnaire

Careerist attitude and career fit explain international mobility success, while the influence of protean and boundaryless career attitude is not very clear

Careerist orientation is the individual career characteristic which better explains international mobility success

Collect data on expatriate performance and refine the success criteria of international mobility, by focusing on the accomplishment of organizational tasks and/or the achievement of key organizational objectives

32.

Cerdin and Selmer (2014)

Contribute to the conceptual clarity of SIE (provide definition and criteria which distinguishes SIE from other types of mobility patterns)

Analysis of several articles, in order to determine how SIEs are defined

SIEs are defined as ‘expatriates who self-initiate their international relocation, with the intentions of regular employment and temporary stay, and with skills/professional qualifications’. Operationalization of SIE is proposed based on dichotomous questions based on four criteria: self-initiated international relocation, regular employment (intentions), intentions of a temporary stay, skilled/professional qualifications

Use the proposed criteria to screen the sample of future studies. Explore the HRM practices of the hiring organizations of SIEs

33.

Farndale et al. (2014)

Explore Global Talent Management strategies of how individual and organizational goals can be balanced for expatriation assignments

Two case studies realized in multinational corporations, with interviews and observations conducted with10 Global Mobility/Human Resources specialists and 6 expatriates

Results demonstrate a largely financially driven balancing act between self-initiated and organizational assigned expatriate assignments

7 research propositions are left for future research

34.

Lauring and Selmer (2014)

Examine whether inherent demographic characteristics (age/gender) and acquired demographic characteristics (marital status/seniority) differentiated work outcomes (job adjustment, time to proficiency, performance and job satisfaction). Associations between these variables and global mobility orientation were also explored

640 academic SIEs residing in Greater China recruited through LinkedIn profiles and university web pages were asked to fill in an online questionnaire. Full/Chair Professors and Associate Professors made up the senior group

Female SIEs have better job performance than male SIEs. Married SIEs have better time to proficiency and job performance than unmarried SIEs. Senior SIEs have better job performance and satisfaction than junior SIEs. Profile of successful SIEs in Greater China: female, married and occupying a senior position. For males and younger individuals, there was a stronger relationship between global mobility orientation and work outcomes

35.

Lauring et al. (2014)

Explore the influence of demographic characteristics (age, marital status, nationality, past relocation experience) on tourism-oriented motivation (seeking reasons, escape reasons) and work-related motivation (career & financial reasons)

428 academic SIEs from 60 different countries working at 34 different universities located in 5 northern European countries

Tourism-oriented and work-related motivations were stronger among academic SIE who are younger, non-married, non-EU and with short experience. Non-EU SIEs arriving in the EU have stronger financial and seeking motivations

Expand this study to other types of SIEs and their respective partners. Conduct qualitative research to better explain how temporary work relocations may connect to tourism motivation

36.

Muir et al. (2014)

Determine what factors influence professional women to self-initiate their expatriation, how do their careers look like and how do they construct their career experiences

25 SIE western women working and living in Beijing were interviewed

The motivations, career types and patterns of SIE women are complex and varied. 4 career patterns are identified: reinventors, reinvigorators, reversers and rejecters

Gather data from SIE women in different host countries. Longitudinal studies and analyze data using discourse analysis. Gender explored if it acts as an inhibitor or facilitator

37.

Nolan and Morley (2014)

Examine the relationship between person-environment fit (person-job needs-supplies fit, person-job demands abilities fit, person-supervisor fit) and cross-cultural adjustment

369 SIE doctors working in the public sector hospitals of Ireland were recruited, after the directors’ approval

The dimensions of person-environment fit had different effects on cross-cultural adjustment. Person-job needs-supplies fit had no relationship

38.

Peiperl et al. (2014)

Analyze the trends and mobility patterns of AEs and SIEs

55,915 highly skilled individuals who crossed borders between 1990 and 2006

Results show a steady increase in domestic job mobility over the studied period, with cross-border mobility keeping pace. SIEs and AEs have become shorter term, with AEs more likely to move to peripheral economies than SIEs. AEs may be on the decline in the EU context as compared with SIEs

39.

Richardson and McKenna (2014)

Investigates the role of networks during expatriation (their impact in the expatriation engagement, how are they formed and maintained, what are their benefits)

51 organizational SIEs working in a professional services firm (Mintech) in Canada. Methodological pluralism (documentary analysis-company expatriation protocol, interviews with 2 HR managers and expatriated workers)

The role of networks are important for organizational SIEs, because they play an instrumental role in fulfilling their desire to expatriate. While being in the host country, they intend to develop, expand and consolidate their ties and networks, since these contribute to the integration and performance of the global business

Explore more structured relations between organizational culture, HRM processes, organizational SIEs and the development of ties and networks

40.

Rodriguez and Scurry (2014)

Explore the career capital development of SIEs in Qatar

20 SIEs working in a Qatari public shareholding company, were interviewed about their social and work experiences

The dynamics at micro, macro and meso levels influence the development of SIEs’ career capital, in the following three domains: SIE as cosmopolitan globetrotters, SIE as experts, SIE as outsiders

41.

Selmer and Lauring (2014a)

Explore the effect of the personality traits dispositional affectivity on the adjustment of SIEs

329 SIEs in Denmark were asked to fill in an online questionnaire

Beneficial associations between positive affectivity and adjustment

42.

Selmer and Lauring (2014b)

Explore the adjustment of self-initiated expatriate academics, comparing adult third-culture kids with adult mono-culture kids

267 academic SIEs in Hong Kong filled in an online questionnaire

Adult third-culture kids have a greater extent of general adjustment, but not interaction or work adjustment

43.

Supangco and Mayhofer (2014)

Determine what factors affect work-role transition outcomes and how the type of expatriation influences work role transition outcomes

106 Filipinos working in local and multinational organizations in Singapore filled in an online questionnaire

Work adjustment is explained by self-efficacy beliefs of the global employees. Job satisfaction is explained by job factors (role discretion and role conflict) and organizational or job context factors (supervisory support and perceived organizational support). Both work role adjustment and job satisfaction are not influenced by whether or not the global employee is company assigned or self-initiated

44.

Vance and McNulty (2014)

Determine similarities and differences across gender

45 American expatriates in five Western and Central European countries were interviewed

The results support Vance’s (2005) career development model

45.

von Borell de Araujo et al. (2014)

Understand the challenges and strategies used by SIEs and AEs in adjusting to the Brazilian culture

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 AEs and 24 SIEs

Challenges: foreignism, formalism, personalism and jeitinho. The strategies used to overcome these challenges differ between SIEs and AEs. The SIEs were less critical and more willing to follow typical Brazilian behavior for resolving problems related to adjustment

Explore the encountered challenges in other host countries characterized by informal influence processes (e.g. Chinese guanxi, Russian svyazi, Arabian wasta)